Why learning to write is far more challenging than reading

Introduction

Contrary to much conventional wisdom, learning to write is significantly more challenging than acquiring an ability to read. Indeed, across history this has generally remained the case. For example, in mediaeval centres of learning, students would initially be required to endure a rigorous period of up to three years of rote learning various grammatical and structural rules prior to being allowed to even commence study on the first steps of rhetorical and writing skills. Many, perhaps the majority, never progressed beyond this point. Then, in the agricultural context of most societies until relatively recently, while basic word recognition could be useful, there was no requirement to write anything much. Also, for the very rich from ancient times, the motivation to be able to write beyond some basic level was often limited by the availability of professional scribes and secretaries who dealt with more complex written communication. Consequently, not only is writing more challenging than reading at a cognitive level, but it has also always played second fiddle in terms of immediate practical importance.
Of course, in the contemporary context, especially in higher education, few would disagree that there is an inextricable link between reading and writing. Moreover, reading ultimately sits at the very centre of all learning experiences. However, the concern of my colleagues is that the increasing reluctance of their students to read set texts is now further undermining the relationship and the quality of written submissions. Consequently, I will initially examine some of the reasons there appears to be a broad demographic and cross-cultural decline in the motivation to read. After this, why learning to write effectively is more demanding than reading will be evaluated. Finally, I will conclude by exploring one relatively new response to the challenge of developing writing competencies based on the cognitive load learning approach.

Reasons for the rise of the reluctant reader

In addition to the well-documented complexity of teaching academic writing, the decline in motivation or even willingness to read increases the challenge faced by both educators and students. Recently, the reluctant reader has become a focus of interest in both academic and slightly more flowery journalistic publications that tend to be based on a somewhat confessional genre.
As an informative overview, research by Alsaeedi et al. (2021) has identified a range of cross-cultural statistics that provide a snapshot of the decline in the motivation to read. For example, students at one UK university claimed they spent 14.1 hours a week reading but only a small percentage reported reading material assigned or suggested by their educators. Another study at a US university highlighted that the student respondents remarkably spent less than one hour a week on course readings. In addition, the results also suggest that many students internationally now adopt a very narrow pragmatic approach to reading. As one illustration, 82% of Ghanaian students reported that they had not read any novels or fiction for at least one year prior to the survey. More generally, most international respondents commented that they did not voluntarily read much at all, other than when pressured to do so. Interestingly, the research also identified that students now tend to read more slowly and comprehend less while struggling to cope much beyond a short extract or the abstract of an article. Finally, the numerous creative attempts by students to find short cuts to avoid reading assigned texts is one of the main causes of last-minute panic writing that frequently leads to some form of plagiarism.
Then, while the inclination to read regularly and more extensively appears to involve some combination of upbringing, the environment and cultural factors, how this works is not exactly clear other than reading seems to be an acquired habit from an early age. As a regular activity, it also appears to act like a kind of mental workout in which the more you engage in it the easier it becomes and the better you feel emotionally.
However, at an everyday experiential level, over recent years, reading books and articles has clearly been challenged by the rapid rise of consumption in digital media combined with the attraction of screen-based forms of entertainment. Smartphones are now ubiquitous; and streaming services provide an endless source of entertainment that offers instant gratification – overshadowing the somewhat slower-paced, introspective experience of reading. Moreover, the reluctant reader conundrum is further complicated by the rapid increase in what are commonly identified as first-generation students. This term is applied to someone from a background in which no other family member has previously studied at college or university level. Such students often report that reading was not a visible or even encouraged aspect of the home experience and that they, therefore, never developed an early reading habit. Understandably, it is a lot more challenging to acquire a comfortable reading routine at a later age, especially in the context of what can initially appear to be a somewhat alien university culture.
Then, at a more immediate practical level, students often report they have very limited knowledge of reading strategies or their application. For example, approaching a large daunting textbook can be an overwhelming experience without guidance. Another constant challenge is how to critically read academic texts such as secondary and primary research papers in which information is positioned in very different locations. Indeed, even the difference between academic and informal texts can be initially confusing and requires explanation, especially as the contrast has become somewhat blurred in an online age.
Finally, a critical point in the early learning process often arises during the gradual progression from reading to writing. One key example is learning the ability to make notes in the margin of texts that are accurate and memorable. This is more challenging than it may at first appear, as the notes then need to be paraphrased to ensure full understanding of the original intended meaning. Clearly, without being able to complete this initial step, it becomes near impossible to proceed to further early written tasks such as developing a summary of a text.

Notemaking as an early bridging strategy

The most effective and efficient method of notemaking is the colour coding and seven-word approach. Academic texts are organised in numerous ways that require the student to think and read critically to focus exclusively on the type of information required to complete an assignment (Edwards, 2020b). A simple example is shown in Figure 1.

First, design a colour code key and place it somewhere on the first page of the texts. Then, very selectively, highlight the areas in the text that include key information required to complete the assigned task in the appropriate colour.
After highlighting one area of the text, immediately add a brief note in the margin of preferably no more than seven words that clearly and memorably summarises the information. In addition to helping students select only the most relevant information in relation to their assigned task, this method also enables them to return to the text at any time to reconnect with key information without the burden of having to read the material again.

The immediate writing challenge

Writing has become increasingly important in our knowledge-based society, well beyond the educational context. For instance, numerous surveys of business leaders repeatedly place written communication abilities at the top of their agenda of essential skills, especially during the graduate recruitment process.
Interestingly, it is estimated that young people today actually spend more time writing than in the relatively recent past. However, this is mainly texting, commenting on online content and interacting in online media games. Unfortunately, these forms of written expression are not even close to the level required to be successful in either university assignments or workplace tasks such as report writing.
More specifically, according to Wexler (2020), the author of the informative book The Knowledge Gap, there are two initial challenges with academic writing. First, such writing requires significant background knowledge of the topic that depends on a willingness to engage in focused research and reading, without which it is virtually impossible to write about any subject coherently. Next, in addition to processing information as we do during reading, writing requires students to struggle with the stressful challenge of how to organise and express their thoughts appropriate to a potentially critical audience.
Moreover, the highly complex process of writing also involves both macro and micro levels of cognitive engagement. At the macro level, it is first necessary to decide on the primary arguments, evidence and general information that should be selected from texts that connect directly with the assigned task. Then, it is necessary to develop a main line of argument or position, based on the evidence available. After this comes the first major writing challenge of summarising the material. This is a complex process I have described previously in three MET articles, two of which I’ve cited here (Edwards, 2020a; 2020b). Next comes the requirement to write a brief outline plan that will ensure a cohesive development of the main arguments. One example of such a method is shown in Figure 2. Finally, there arrives the demanding experience of having to write the first draft of the assignment. This initial endeavour is best understood as an attempt to tell ourselves the story so we can critically evaluate whether the content will be coherent for the audience and to identify required changes prior to the submission of the final copy. Obviously, feedback from the teacher is also critical at the draft submission stage.

Next, at the micro level, there are numerous language and convention requirements that must be considered and appropriately applied. These include: the use of connective phrases; hedging or cautious language; word choice; syntax; and grammar. In addition, at this stage students must also carefully focus on conventions such as accurate in-text citations, together with essential assignment completion activities such as proofreading and polishing the language.
Consequently, the threat of cognitive overload arises due to the need to consider all these macro and micro issues simultaneously, as they cannot be arranged or managed in some more convenient sequence. Unfortunately, students who are weak at the micro level will simply not have enough resources to complete the macro, big-picture issues. Then, students who are weak at the macro level will not be typically able to find sufficient time or energy to focus on the micro-learning, writing-style requirements.
We now need to move on to look at some possible solutions to these writing challenges that will be informed by the cognitive load model of learning.

Applying cognitive load theory

Cognitive load theory was first introduced by John Sewell in 1988 but has since been significantly developed both by Sewell and other authors. This model focuses on the dynamics of the working memory when acquiring new complex information, together with the transfer process to the long-term memory. In contrast to the long-term memory that is potentially boundless, the working memory can only store a limited amount of information at any one time. Moreover, the higher the potential cognitive load – such as when writing – the more difficult it becomes to successfully retain and transfer information to the long-term memory for safe storage. Then, during the initial acquisition process, if we fail to constantly return to the information in the short term and develop it further, it will soon fade or be dropped completely. It is also important to avoid jumping around between topics as this behaviour further limits the ability of the short-term memory to retain information. For example, the permanently distracted mobile phone addict is constantly disrupting information entering the short-term memory by their erratic and unfocused behaviour.

Cognitive load theory in an academic English context

This example of the application of cognitive load theory is focused on a common academic English challenge of reading complex texts in preparation for a written assignment. It also highlights the interdependent relationship between reading and writing. The number of sessions required to complete this process will depend on the individual teacher’s assessment of the student class level.
First, in a class session, it is important to begin with an analysis of a simple written assignment question that is accessible to the students in terms of the topic. It is also essential to constantly refer to the assignment question across the learning process, as many students begin to come off topic at this stage or even freeze not knowing how to initially respond to the task.

Organising a written assignment question

A well-structured academic question for a written assignment should include five elements of the theme + subject + theory + question + context, as shown in Figure 3.

Analysing the key question instructions

Then, it is important to slowly work through the question with the students to analyse the key issues that signal what is required in the response (Figure 4). Without guided assistance from educators, these instructional elements of a question can remain almost invisible.

Then, in the next class session, the focus should be on working through a simplified outline of a secondary research text to highlight where key information is located (Table 1). I always initially select a secondary text as they are simpler for the students to follow than empirical or research-based examples.

After this, students should be provided with a copy of a text in which the abstract, thesis position at the end of the introduction and the conclusion have been removed. Later in the process students will be required to write their own interpretation of these missing elements, but only when they are fully comfortable with the information in the text. Finally, it is essential to select a text that is short in length, especially in relation to the literature review.
Now the first, simple, written activity can be assigned to students as a homework exercise. This task is to read the literature review and answer some questions on the text. Here it is important to ensure that these are open and not comprehension questions. For example, questions should focus on issues such as: why the author claims the topic is of direct relevance to the audience; what is the one, key evidence provided to support this claim; and what is a counterargument to the claim provided. This exercise is also an opportunity to begin the practice of notemaking. Finally, students should be instructed to restrict their responses to a maximum of three sentences. Once the students have completed and submitted the task, it is essential to return feedback as soon as possible to keep the information active in the short-term memory.
This process should then be repeated with the findings focusing on the relevance of the information for the audience together with comments on whether the arguments offered appear to be convincing or generally rather weak. At this stage students must be directed to add brief reasons in support of their response positions.
By this time students should have enough information on the text to begin the process of being taught how to write the thesis or main line of argument position at the end of the introduction. This session should be held in class and conclude with a discussion of the thesis position of the text author.
Finally, at the discretion of the teacher, it should then become comfortable for the students to progress to other written tasks such as constructing a basic conclusion and abstract for the text based on simplified templates. After this, the students should be able to design an essay outline in preparation for an assigned short essay based on the original question.
However, before concluding this section, there are two additional issues over which the teacher has significantly less control, while some educators even argue that both are not teachable in any meaningful sense. The first is highlighted by Osborn’s (2024) observation that:

writing is ninety-nine percent thinking, one percent writing. In other words, when you know what you want to say and how you want to say it, writing becomes easier and more successful.

– Susan Osborn (2024)
This comment raised the thorny question of whether critical thinking can be taught as some generic skill (Edwards, 2013).
The second issue is one of time and project management; in extreme cases this is more of a counselling rather than a teaching issue. The full range of time management challenges was covered in an MET article on exam revision (Edwards, 2024).

Conclusion

While this article focuses on one example of cognitive load theory in the context of academic English, significantly more research has been published on the full range of school learning experiences. Regardless of the context, the initial critical insight for all educators is the limited capacity of the working memory to absorb and retain new material at any one attempt. Moreover, information entering the working memory must be constantly revisited and developed to avoid being simply dropped. Therefore, careful planning with repeated practice is required before information can be secured in the long-term memory and thus, hopefully, retained.

References